The Unites States Education Reform - 1809 Words

The Unites States Education Reform The United States Board of Education fosters the mission statement to, â€Å"promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access†(U.S. Department of Education). The United States currently uses standardized test to serve as a knowledge check point. The system then compares the test results to develop a black and white curriculum for all students, failing to include aspects of different learning techniques. The standardized results provided excellent information about students ability to comprehend a statement and regurgitate an answer by filling in A, B, or C. The tests fail to promote creativity and diverse thinking. In a perfect†¦show more content†¦As stated in the Atlantis, one of America’s leading political magazines, â€Å"Finland s success is especially intriguing because Finnish schools assign less homework and engage children in more creative play†(Partanen). So how is Finland consistently turning in some of the highest test results? Could the United State’s k-12 education ever adapt to reform its system to reflect Finland s suggests? To improve the United States current education, schools need to find an alternative to standardized tests and make classrooms more interactive. The curriculum needs to be focused on students’ futures to prepare them for the 21st century, not the past. Prince EA, a motivational filmmaker, poet, and speaker, made a YouTube video about the United States education system, he opens with a quote from Albert Einstein that states, â€Å"Everybody is a genius. But if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a tree, it will live its whole life believing that it is stupid.† To put this into perspective, standardized tests represent the tree and students represent the fish. Most students don’t process information in the same way. In Fact, it’s widely accepted that different approaches to learning have numerous advantages to stimulate students’ learning motivation (Proulx etc.). Many modern day U.S. schools use digital game-based learning. This approach, â€Å"integrat[es] appropriateShow MoreRelatedHow the United States Government Has Changed1030 Words   |  5 PagesSince the fight for liberty from Europe, the political system of the United States had change for good. The United States had made improvement in t heir government structure to make the country a better place. The country has being affected in many different ways since the departure from the mother country. Due to the liberty the American people wanted, they had to make a government that could lead them to a better country than the mother country. The American people had being making many improvementsRead MoreImmigration : A Nation Of Immigrants937 Words   |  4 Pagesfix the United States’ many economic and social problems with his immigration reform. This plan, which promises temporary citizenship to qualifying immigrants, has put a strain in the relationship between the national and state governments. Texas’ current governor Greg Abbott is currently taking legal action against President Obama’s administration, he argues that President Obama’s immigration reform will hurt the economy. Greg Abbott is not only fighting Obama’s immigration reform but he is alsoRead MoreReactionary Policies173 2 Words   |  7 Pagesof extreme repression. He turned his back on reform all together and instituted a series of predictable repressive measures that collectively known as â€Å"The Reaction†. There were numerous reactionary policies brought in by the new and unexpected Tsar, one of which was known as Russification. This particular policy was brought in in 1881 at the very beginning of the Tsar’s reign, it has three main aims: repression of opponents; undoing the liberal reforms of his father and restoring Russia’s positionRead MorePresident Obama s Presidential Election1669 Words   |  7 PagesThe United States holds a presidential election every four years. The current president, Barack Obama, is unable to seek reelection for third time because the Twenty-second Amendment states a president can only serve two terms. President Obama’s final term ends January 20th, 2017, the same day as the new presidential inauguration. The new president to be induc ted will be elected November 8th, 2016, Election Day. The race to be president began shortly after the 2014 presidential election, where candidatesRead MoreAchievement of the Goals Set Down in the Charter Oath of 1868 by 1895630 Words   |  3 Pagesuncivilized customs, to learn useful and practical knowledge and the national interest would override all other interests. After examining the result of certain reform items, the goals set down in the Charter Oath were to a large extent achieved by 1895. The Charter Oath promised an elected assembly to discuss and to decide state affairs. It was achieved by the creation of a constitutional government in 1889. The Meiji granted the Japanese people certain rights never before knownRead MoreThe Liberal Election Victory of 1906 Essay1387 Words   |  6 PagesElection Victory of 1906 The Liberals won a landslide election victory in 1906. It is claimed that the loss of power for the Conservatives was largely due to a decline in fortunes as the party split due to issues over tariff reforms. On the other hand it is assumed that the loss was due to the complacency and the neglect of Workingmens Interests. Arthur James Balfour had become the Conservative leader in the House of Commons and served (1891-92, 1895-1903) as theRead MoreThe Opening Of Japan And China Essay1616 Words   |  7 PagesJonah Noel December 3, 2016 The â€Å"opening† of Japan and China; A love story Throughout history, dozens of countries have adopted isolationist policies on countless different occasions. For example, in the United States in the 1930’s, many Americans felt that amidst the Great Depression, the government should focus its efforts on solving problems at home before intervening in international affairs. Furthermore, today, totalitarian dictators often isolate their countries in order to consolidate theirRead MoreAre Colleges Worth The Price Of Admission?928 Words   |  4 PagesThe ideal purpose of a college education was not to become the greatest financial outlay for a parent or guardian. It’s basic mission was to challenge the minds of younger individuals but instead many are burdened with staggering loans from something that was meant essentially to benefit. It has become a common burden for a family to be in debt six figures behind college tuition and colleges are losing their primary purpose of challenging the mind of young individuals. The e ssay â€Å"Are Colleges WorthRead MoreThe Education Of The Public Education763 Words   |  4 PagesAbstract Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) curriculum in schools is undergoing a revolution in public education. This revolution is sparked by an increase in federal funding over the last decade. Between the years of 2011 and 2015, the federal government alone invested between three and 3.7 billion dollars yearly for STEM education (Johnson, 2012) (White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, 2014) and new STEM educational instructional strategies (Bruce-Dacis, GubbinsRead MoreA Balanced Believers Reform Movement1248 Words   |  5 PagesBalanced Believers Reform The time and need for reform has never been greater than it is right now. The way in which the world is moving is causing divisions among the people of the Islamic faith. Now is the time to look to the Qur’an and the hadith. We must achieve the right balance of maintaining our acts toward God, while modernizing and changing with the times, in order to better benefit society and people as a whole. This is why our reform movement urges all Muslims to join this cause and become

To What Extent Was The New Deal A Success What Were Its...

Smitkumar Patel US History – 2 Professor Ojserkis 1 May 2017 To what extent was the New Deal a success? What were its successes and failures? The new deal was many programs issued by the US government to help the economy after the stock market crash of 1929. The new deal was issued because of the great depression and the new deal was a way to get out of the great depression. The great depression began in August 1929 and it lasted for about 10 years. â€Å"The Great Depression lasted from 1929 to 1939, and was the worst economic downturn in the history of the industrialized world.† (History.com) The Great Depression caused many issues in the US such as job losses. The president during the great depression was President Herbert Hoover and he was†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"One if four Americans was out of work by 1933† (Livingnewdeal.org). A huge amount of the US population was unemployed and to change that President Roosevelt had to do something. In his new deal president Roosevelt created many jobs. What the new deal did was it created many different agencies to provide work for millions of unemployed workers and paid wages which saved many families. There were many agencies such as the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and The Public Works Administration (PWA), and Work Progress Administration (WPA) which gave work to 3 million people. The new deal also helped recover the economy by stabilizing the banks and cleaning up the mess from the stock market crash of 1929. â€Å"Roosevelt sought to reform the financial system, creating the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) to protect depositors accounts and the securities and exchange commission (SEC) to regulate the stock market and prevent abuse of the kind that led to the 1929 crash† (History.com). Not only did Roosevelt make agencies to help create jobs there was also many agencies created to help the financial system and to regulate the stock market so that something like the great depression does not happen again. This shows that t he new deal was successful because it was able to give many jobs to unemployed Americans and fix the stock market and the financial system and manyShow MoreRelatedNatural Disasters And Attacks By Individuals Or Groups1710 Words   |  7 PagesFurthermore, the model deals with a magnitude of events, to which federal and community partnerships are essential in creating a foundation for managing the crisis (I.C.,2012). The aim of this model is the application when necessary of the best possible practices, and procedures, which hinder on safety, achievement of objectives, and efficiency (I.C., 2012). The primary focus of this paper will be on the natural disaster of 2005, Hurricane Katrina, and how the ICS model was used in containing theRead MoreThe Kennedy And Lyndon B Johnson775 Words   |  4 PagesLyndon B Johnson were thrown into the caldron of executive US politics on January 20th 1961 having been elected on a single presidential/vice presidential ticket. As progressive-liberal s, their incumbency oversaw a period of substantial domestic and international change that has continued to shape America to this day. Historical assessments of each President are wide-ranging. Historians such as Robert Dallek, author of ‘J.F.K. - An Unfinished Life’, conclude that Kennedy’s premiership was one of ‘smallRead MoreThe Successes and Failures of Mussolinis Domestic Policies in Italy Between 1922 and 19391101 Words   |  5 PagesThe Successes and Failures of Mussolinis Domestic Policies in Italy Between 1922 and 1939 Similar to those of Hitler, Mussolini’s main goals were to create an Italian state with a strong identity and role within Europe with a powerful military force. From the day he became Prime Minister on October 29th, 1922 of a coalition government, he lacked a certain skill in organization. It was not quite clear what exactly Mussolini wanted to do, and it seemed as though he madeRead MoreHow successfully did Britain secure its Interests in the Eastern Question from 1856-1902?1526 Words   |  7 Pages1856-1902? Between 1856 and 1902 British aims were to secure trade routes, maintain the balance of power in Britain’s favour, have naval control of the Mediterranean and to safeguard India and North Africa against threatening powers such as France and Russia. These aims were fundamental to Britain at the time and heavily influenced British foreign policy including British involvement in the Eastern Question. Britain’s aims in the Eastern Question were to maintain the integrity of the Ottoman EmpireRead MoreExamples Of Strategic Planning1030 Words   |  5 Pagespositions were created to achieve the aims and objectives of the entity. At that time the major strategy was to employ consultants on as needed basis to complete varying tasks. However over time it was deemed necessary to make a strategic shift to increase the staff complement in order to build core competencies. In dealing with the implementation of various projects, the strategic approach is to review the requirements of the stakeholders, look at what currently exists, research what happens globallyRead MoreBenefits Of A Child s Early Education1498 Words   |  6 Pagesbetter education when they start off school in smaller classrooms. Schools all across the world have different educations than those in the United States. They also tend to go through hardships in their education that causes them to doubt their failures and successes. Depending on how they are raised and how their school life is, it causes how they view other people from different cultures. They view people different from themselves and may sometimes not want to be around people that are different fromRead MoreEarle Charlton Was The Quintessential Entrepreneur1415 Words   |  6 PagesCharlton was the quintessential entrepreneur† (forward xxi). In order for one to be quintessential they should be trustworthy, have confidence, be persuasive, and be supportive. Earle Charlton was a perfect fit when it came to being a quintesse ntial leader. Risk taking was other quality that Earle Charlton took part in. He not only fulfilled but demonstrated all of these characteristics so fluently. Earle Charlton was not the typical entrepreneur. Scholars state, â€Å"Earle Charlton was the archetypalRead MoreProject Management Techniques For Success And Failure1589 Words   |  7 PagesProject Management Techniques for Success and Failure Individual Assignment BPM501, Semester 1 2016 Table of Contents Executive Summary 1. Introduction 2 2. Project Classification 2 2.1 project success factor 2.2 cause of project failure 2.3 project success factor of IT 2.4 project failure factor of IT 3. Scope of the literature 4 3.1 Key words 3.2 Databases 3.3 Journals 4. Background (Headings and subheadings) 5 5. Discussion 6. Recommendations 7. Conclusion 8. YourRead MoreAchievement Attributions Of School Aged Australian Children : A Gender Based Study2308 Words   |  10 Pageschildren. Its aim was to investigate the internal and external factors relating to the attribution of success and failure in particular academic domains. The study used Bernard Weiner’s (1974) attribution theory to foreground the ideas behind the hypothesis. A total of 13 children participated in the study. Participants included 5 boys aged 6-13, and 8 girls aged 6-15. A questionnaire presented both qualitative and quantitative results. It was found that attributions to success and failure interrelatedRead MoreAp Exam Essays1660 Words   |  7 PagesAP Exam Essays 2001-2010 2010 AP Exam Essays 1. In what ways did ideas and values held by Puritans influence the political, economic, and social development of the New England colonies from 1630 through the 1660s? 2. Analyze the political, diplomatic, and military reasons for the United States victory in the Revolutionary War. Confine your answer to the period 1775–1783. 3. Analyze the ways in which controversy over the extension of slavery into western territories contributed to the coming

Chinas One Child Policy free essay sample

China’s One Child Policy Like Arthur Waley states When a son is born, Let him sleep on the bed, Clothe him with fine clothes, And give him jade to play†¦When a daughter is born, Let her sleep on the ground, Wrap her in common wrappings, And give broken tiles to play†¦. Traditional Chinese Society value and worship boys rather than girls because they say boys are more beneficial since they are harder workers and they carry on the last name of the family. Even though China may be heavily populated, its one child policy is brutal and needs to stop because newborn females are being abandoned, murdered, and abortions are conducted at an alarming rate. In 1967, the one child policy was introduced to limit the population since it was one of the worlds most populated country. â€Å"The one child family policy was developed and implemented in response to concerns about the social and economic consequences of continued rapid population growth† (Kane). This policy limited every family to have one child in order to try and decrease the size of the population in China. In some areas, the law didn’t apply if the first born child was a girl, military officers of a certain rank, members of China’s many ethnic minorities or farmers who were poor. Many families who decided to have more than one child, weren’t able to obtain a birth certificate, education, future birth control, and a fine would be applied to each and every other child one has. Those who didn’t want to face the consequences of having another child, often aborted or just left the baby to die in the street, especially if it was a baby girl. The frequent use of abortion and neglect in china is just savage to those innocent babies of Chinese families. Female Infanticide increased in China due to this one child policy. â€Å"Although the Chinese government recognized the risks to female infants in rural areas where anti-female bias is greater, allowing couples to have a second child if the first is a girl, the number of girls who have been subject to murder and neglect, as a result of this policy, numbers in the millions† (Female Infanticide). China’s one child policy was passed knowing that the female infanticide would grow and as a result it led to millions of neglected and murdered newborn girls which brought the birth rate of girls down. â€Å"Despite the egalitarian nature of Chinese society, many parents believe that having a son is a vital element of providing for their old age. Therefore in extreme cases, a baby is killed if it is not of the preferred sex, because of the pressure not to have more than one child† (Female Infanticide). Girls in China are being neglected and intentionally killed by their own parents due to the fact that many families in china prefer to have a son since they are the ones who carry the last name and are more likely to succeed. â€Å"The main reasons given for abortion are contraceptive failure and a lack of government approval for the pregnancy under the one child policy† (Hesketh). The lack of money also resulted in many abortions and neglect of newborn babies. If families followed this one child policy, the first child would earn free education, health and money for their one and only child. Having more than one baby effected the life’s of many families because of the fact that there would be a fine assigned for each and every other child they had, they wouldn’t earn a birth certificate, there would be no government help and they would have to pay more tax. The primary reason why China’s One Child Policy was conducted, was because of its overpopulated country. â€Å"After the introduction of the one-child policy, the fertility rate in China fell from 2. 63 births per woman in 1980 (already a sharp reduction from more than five births per woman in the early 1970s) to 1. 61 in 2009† (Torrent). When this policy was passed, many families followed the one child policy, which prevented the population from going up. If the policy was never conducted, the births between those years would have been double the amount they were. â€Å"In China’s poor areas, economic and cultural backwardness and too many births often interact as both cause and effect. The Chinese government has taken a step in giving support to the development of poor areas to alleviate poverty by promoting family planning, holding population growth under control, and raising the life quality of the population in those areas† (Torrent). The overpopulation resulted in an increase in birth rates, decline in mortality rates, and made it difficult to obtain more resources. This policy also helped those families in need, by providing government resources if only they abided by the rules of having one child. Overall China’s One Child Policy has helped maintain the population from increasing and it also has given an opportunity for the low class to live in better conditions. China’s One Child policy is unjust to those innocent newborns who are being abandoned, neglected by their own parents, put up for adoption, and sometimes not even given the opportunity of being born. The preference of a boy over a girl is also really unnecessary, yes boys are more capable of being more successful in the Chinese society because of the higher wages they earn, and better jobs they offer but a girl should also be able to live her life, girls are humans just like boys are. â€Å"But men without women are altogether more troublesome than women without men, especially when they are young† (Hitchens). At an obvious point, women are needed to reproduce. How is the Chinese society going to keep on growing if only boys are being reproduced? Does the Chinese society want girls to become extinct, because without girls boys will also become extinct, which would just make the whole Chinese society extinct. Keeping population low helps the society live in a better, stable condition but girls shouldn’t be neglected and they should be favored as much as boys are favored, because either way boys and girls are both humans beings and should be treated equally. Overall, it’s ones fault for their actions so why put others down for ones mistakes. Even though China’s population increased over time, China’s One Child Policy kept it from increasing even more than expected. â€Å"As a result, in 2008, China’s rate of population growth was only 5 per thousand, down from over 14 per thousand in 1990 and 25 per thousand in 197â€Å"(Wang). Population is still increasing but not as dramatically as before. â€Å"Today the national fertility level is around 1. 5 and possibly lower. In the country’s more developed regions, fertility has been even lower for more than a decade—barely above 1 child per couple, a level that rivals the lowest fertility rates in the world†(Wang). Even the birth rate has been reported to be decreasing, it might be because the policy is being followed or because many families are continuing to abort, neglect, or murder the child. â€Å"†¦the projected 20 to 30 million Chinese men who will not be able to find wives, due to the country’s decades-long imbalanced sex ratio at birth, may constitute a large group of unhappy, dissatisfied people† (Wang). It is said that, since there would be less women than men, many men would not even get the opportunity to get married which will cause criminal intentions and maybe even homosexuals. This policy may be helpful in decreasing the population, but it’s changing the way many people think about girls and boys, and it’s making people do unwanted actions. Everyone should have the chance to live how they desire, to have as many children they want, because either way they’re responsible for their actions. China’s One Child Policy was conducted to reduce the rate of population by following the rule of having one child per family, which led to many neglected unborn or newborn babies and female infanticide. As Cameron states, â€Å"We document that Chinas One-Child Policy (OCP), one of the most radical approaches to limiting population growth, has produced significantly less trusting, less trustworthy, more risk-averse, less competitive, more pessimistic, and less conscientious individuals†. The main cause for China’s One Child Policy was to avoid a national population crisis, and the effect that arose was the sex-selective abortion and uneven gender ratio. It is always ones choice and action one decides for themselves, no matter what the consequences bring.

War poems compared Essay Example For Students

War poems compared Essay The First World War began in 1914 and ended in 1918. Throughout the two years many men volunteered thinking that it was an opportunity to fight for their country. But they were badly mistaken. Instead of what they thought war was going to bring them, excitement and adventure, they received horrors beyond imagination. Spring Offensive and Exposure are two poems where the setting and atmosphere contribute to the ideas expressed by the poets. Wilfred Owen, who fought in the war and knew what the conditions where like, wrote both these poems which show different sides of war. One shows what war was like in the spring and the other shows what war was like in the winter. In the first section of Spring Offensive, Wilfred Owen describes what the soldiers were doing just before they went to battle. The soldiers relax and think of what could happen to them, Knowing their feet had come to an end of the world. Marvelling they stood, and watched the long grass swirled. The soldiers rest before they go to battle. The word Marvelling means that the soldiers stand there on the green grass and looking at the beautiful nature around them, thinking how this might be the last time they see something as beautiful. We will write a custom essay on War poems compared specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The words May Breeze, murmurous with wasp and midge; The ms and w emphasis the sound of an insects in the summer and that adds to the nature at the beginning of the poem. In the second section the poem the soldiers are getting ready to go to war. open stretch of herb and heather Exposed. And instantly the whole sky burned with fury against them This first part of this phrase shows that as soon as the soldiers started to run over the hill they had nothing to cover them; they were Exposed to the enemys fire. Also the words instantly the whole sky burned with fury against them show that as they ran over the hill, all hell let loose. Bullets and bombs were flying everywhere; dust was created out of thin air that hid the Sun from reaching onto the field. Finally in the last section of the poem men come back from war, many think that they are heroes but the soldiers will never forget what happened on that field and how they shouldnt be crowned heroes, but murderers. few who rushed in the body to enter hell and there out-fiending all its fiends and flames with superhuman inhumanities The first part of the quote shows soldiers thinking that being on the battle field was worst than being in hell. This shows what happened on the battle field was extremely sinful and the men regret it. This also applies to a quote nearer the end of the poem, Why speak no they of comrades that went under? This emphasises the fact that the horrors of war were so great they did not want to talk about the war. In Exposure Owen describes how the soldiers had to wait in the cold for the enemy to make a mistake. At the beginning of the poem Owen describes how cold winter was merciless iced east winds that knive us The word merciless and knive tell the reader that in winter most the soldiers died because of cold. They froze to death. Also at the end of nearly each stanza there is a quote, But nothing happens which emphasises the fact that winter was extremely cold and the soldiers where senseless and neither our soldiers nor the enemy had enough energy to move so both sides just waited until the cold disaster was over. .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be , .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be .postImageUrl , .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be , .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be:hover , .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be:visited , .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be:active { border:0!important; } .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be:active , .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ue606d0f2625055a636a18c4f4e4b20be:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: A Doll's House Externalizing Inner Problems EssayAt first, when the First World War began the soldiers where very pleased and excited but in this poem Owen shows how many men realised the mistake they made What are we doing here? this quote shows exactly that. Men questioned themselves if war was really worth leaving their family just to gain a medal. I dont think it was. In Exposure Owen uses the same language technique as he did in Spring Offensive, Sudden successive flights of bullet streaks the silence the s alliteration creates the onomatopoeic sound of bullets flying through the air. Also the f alliteration Flowing flakes that flock imitates how dull winter seems. Its very beautiful in the winter but lifeless. When blood is shed on the white snow, winter comes to life. The difference between the two poems is that one is set in a cold environment and the other has a warm setting. The words May breeze indicates that in the spring it was quiet warm, it was the perfect season to fight in because it wasnt too hot or too cold. In Exposure it was the opposite. It was the worst season to fight in and Owen describes winter as being, merciless because the winter had no mercy on any soldier. Even the title of the poem itself indicates that the men were exposed to the cold. The cold made the soldiers weak and vulnerable so they could not give 100% in the fight. Whos For The Game? and God! How I Hate You view war in completely different ways. One poem discusses how war is good for the world, using a propagandistic technique to persuade soldiers to join the war and fight for their country. The other discusses the reality of war and describes to us the conditions or war behind the propagandistic image.

Your Comprehensive Guide to Negotiating Salary

Your Comprehensive Guide to Negotiating Salary No matter what your job, no matter what your industry, you have something in common with everyone else: you want to make more money as you move through your career. (Living the dream!) Similarly, the way to get there is pretty universal as well: learning how to negotiate your workplace value into cash money. Whether you’re already in a job and you’re seeking a raise, or you’ve just gotten a job offer and want to maximize your starting salary, there are tools to keep in your belt for negotiating your salary. 1. Negotiating Salary When You’ve Just Gotten a Job Offer  a.   When Should You Start Negotiating?  b.   What Tools Should You Have Ready to Go?  c.   How Should You Approach the Negotiation?  d.   When Do You Settle? Or, When Do You Walk Away?  e.   What Mistakes Are Lurking?  2. Negotiating Salary If  You’re Looking for a Raise/Promotion  a.  When Should You Start Negotiating?  b.  What Tools Should You Have Rea dy to Go?  c.  How Should You Approach It?  d.  When Do You Settle? Or, When Do You Walk Away?  How to Negotiate If You’ve Just Gotten a Job OfferCongratulations! Score! You’ve outwitted, outlasted, and outplayed your competitors to get to the end. (Oh wait, that’s Survivor.) Now after you’ve had a glass of champagne (or the fizzy celebratory beverage of your choice), don’t get too complacent- you’ve still got one more stage: the salary negotiation.  Business.com has a great overview of the process:When Should You Start Negotiating?You should wait until you have your job offer in hand. Mention money too early, and you run the risk of giving information that could limit your salary ceiling (like what you were earning previously, or what you’d be willing to accept now). It could also be a turn-off for the hiring company†¦you don’t want to seem too mercenary before you even have the job. During the interview phase s, focus on your attributes and experience, and on getting hired.Once you’ve received an offer, then it’s time to start negotiating your salary.What Tools Should You Have Ready to Go?  As you get ready for battle, here are three things to have at the top of your mind.1. A target salary rangeWhile you shouldn’t actually mention salary while you’re interviewing, you should definitely start thinking about the best-case scenario (job offer and salary negotiation stage) ahead of time. Part of that is doing your homework on what you’re worth, professionally.There are tons of resources online that can help you drill down into your specific industry and job, and find at least a range that feels comfortable based on your experience level. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics has baseline government data on salaries and career outlooks for various industries. Sites like Payscale.com, Salary.com, and GlassDoor.com can help you zoom in on your professional wo rth as well, aggregating data about real people’s salaries in various industries. You want your expectations to be realistic, so gather as much info as you can about the salaries attached to your new role (or similar jobs in the industry), for people at your experience level.2. Your selling points (which are now justification points)In addition to having a dollar range in mind, you should keep your resume and interview talking points handy as well. It may seem like those are old news after you aced your interview, but you should have a ready list of all of your accomplishments and experience to bolster any requests for a higher salary.3. Intangibles And don’t forget that while we call this â€Å"salary† negotiation, it’s about your entire compensation package at your new job. That includes yes, your baseline salary, but also vacation time, flexible work arrangements, paid leave, and other benefits. These may take a backseat to the official dollar amount, but they’re great to have as an additional bargaining chip- especially if the company proves unwilling or unable to meet your goal salary. You can try to get additional time off, or work-from-home arrangements to compensate for a slightly lower salary.4. Your dealbreaker amount Unfortunately, some negotiations won’t work out. As part of your salary range, you should also keep the lower limit in mind- the number where, if the salary falls below it and can’t budge upward, you can’t move forward with this new job.How Should You Approach the Negotiation?Some companies will include a salary offer with the official job offer. In this case, you would use that number as a starting point, or an â€Å"anchor.† If you get an offer without a dollar amount attached, you get to throw out a number as the anchor. Again (and I can’t emphasize this enough), be realistic. If you’re going for a mid-level management position and you walk in asking for a g iant signing bonus and a Ferrari, you might be laughed right out of your job offer.According to recruiter Nick Corcodilos, a goal to keep in mind for switching jobs is about a 20% increase in salary. That may or may not be realistic depending on your industry or your new company’s economic situation, but think of it as an ideal-world guideline.Either way, once the initial dollar amounts is out there, don’t accept the first offer from your new company. You won’t lose your job offer just for negotiating- it’s a commonplace part of the hiring process these days. Send a counteroffer, and go from there.To see how salary negotiations can play out, career author Ramit Sethi has a no-holds-barred approach in this video negotiation re-enactment:When Do You Settle? Or, When Do You Walk Away?As Kenny Rogers once told us, part of the game is knowing when to fold ‘em. Negotiation for a new job is a form of gambling- there’s no guarantee the company will m eet your salary request. If their initial and subsequent offers fall below what you are able to accept, then it’s okay to turn down the job offer and walk away. If you really need or want this job, and the salary offer falls substantially short, try to use that â€Å"intangibles† chip and try to bolster things like vacation time or job title as a way to offset the salary before you accept the offer.  Also, don’t let the process drag out indefinitely. The company is clearly interested in filling this role as soon as possible, and you want things to move along as well. Expect the process to advance over a short period of time†¦possibly a few days. Once you know things aren’t going to work, it’s better to put that out there and get the inevitable end out of the way.What Mistakes Are Lurking?Here are some of the top mistakes people make in negotiating a new job salary:Accepting the first offer. Just don’t do it! You don’t know how high you could have gone if you don’t even try.Aiming too high. Be realistic in your salary expectations.Being too aggressive. A respectful tone is key to the process- after all, these will likely be your colleagues soon. Confidence and information are great tools- swagger is not.Accepting without knowing salary. If, in your excitement, you accept the job offer without knowing what your salary is (and having a chance to respond or negotiate), you put yourself at a major disadvantage.How to Negotiate If You’re Looking for a Raise/PromotionIf you’re already comfortable in your job and are seeking a merit-based raise, the process is a little different. No one is going to come to you and say, â€Å"You know what? You’ve been awesome this year. Take this extra cash.† The initiative is all on you. It’s easy for both employers and employees to get complacent. Once they have you in place, what’s their incentive to keep throwing money at you? Many companies have an automatic yearly raise in place, often at the cost-of-living level. But even if you can already expect a bump in your salary this year, there’s no reason you can’t try to negotiate and maximize that. And if your company doesn’t have an automatic raise mechanism in place, all the more reason to make a case that you deserve more.RELATED:  How to Negotiate Your Salary in an InterviewWhen Should You Start Negotiating?Your annual review is a pretty common time to kick off this process. Your manager is already thinking about your performance for the year, and may have promotions on the brain. However, you don’t necessarily need to wait for an official window for talking about salary. If you’ve come to the conclusion that you would like to ask for more money, all you really need to do is schedule time with your boss to sit down and discuss. Make sure you have set a time when both of you can concentrate- don’t do it on the f ly (like as you’re both getting coffee in the morning).What Tools Should You Have Ready to Go?Even though you’ve likely been at your job for a while, don’t rely on your boss’s institutional memory of what you’ve done. Be prepared to come up with your â€Å"I deserve a raise today† package from scratch. This is especially true if your current boss isn’t the one who hired you. Don’t make him or her dig through your HR file to get your resume from six years ago. Here’s what you should be prepared to bring to your meeting:Updated resume. An up-to-date resume isn’t a betrayal of your employer, or a sign you’re looking to jump ship. It’s a smart tool to have: a current record of what you’ve accomplished in the time since you’ve been hired.A target salary range. Similar to a new hire, you should know what you’re worth, professionally. Use sites like the S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Pa yscale.com, Salary.com, and GlassDoor.com to figure out where you should be aiming. This can be good for two reasons: a) If you’re making less than other people in similar roles, that’s a great talking point to have; and b) it prevents you from asking for the Moon when you should be asking for, say, a modest moon rock.Non-salary considerations. Would your life be easier if you could work from home one day a week? Can you get three extra vacation days? These are things to consider, especially if your company isn’t able or willing to meet your â€Å"suggested† new salary.A plan B. If your company can’t or won’t compensate you to a level you deserve based on your achievements and experience, then what’s your next move? Do you sigh, keep the status quo, and try again next year? Or do you decide that this is no longer a company you want to work for? Before you talk with your boss, have a sense of what you will do, pending different outcome s.How Should You Approach It?Long before you approach your boss about a raise, make sure you’re performing at the top of your game. Take on extra responsibilities, and make sure everything’s documented. Seek out leadership opportunities within your company. And always, always have specific examples in mind. You’ll need to justify the extra money, so having concrete talking points as to how you’ve gone above and beyond will make it easier for your boss to either approve, or pass it along to the next level for consideration.25% of people that asked for a raise got more money than they were expectingThe politics can be tricky with an in-house request for a raise. After all, you’re not facing a faceless HR person or someone you met once for an interview. You’re approaching someone you’ve worked with, possibly for a long time. According to research by Undercover Recruiter, people are anxious in general about asking for a raise- as many as 39% of people are hesitant to dive into the process, with a scant 26% of women and 40% of men feeling confident enough to go for it: Once you’ve gathered your data points and gathered the courage to approach your manager about a raise, make sure you keep a balanced, professional tone throughout. Even if you and your boss are best buds, remember that this is a relationship-neutral zone: he or she can’t reward you just for being a hilarious friend, or a co-conspirator in office shenanigans. Remember that you’re negotiating something as a professional, so act like the consummate professional who deserves more compensation.When Do You Settle? Or, When Do You Walk Away?Unlike a new job offer salary negotiation, you don’t have the same luxury of walking away from the process. If your boss says no, you still have to show up at work the next day. This is where your Plan B comes in handy. If you’d already decided that you’re going to move on if the c ompany doesn’t give you a raise, don’t quit in a snit. Calmly end the conversation with your boss, and quietly make plans to look for your next job opportunity. Remember, it’s easier to look for a job while you have a job, so don’t give up in anger and endanger your security in the meantime.So what do you think? Are you ready to approach your next salary discussion like the keen-eyed shark you can be?RELATED:  11 Tips for Getting the Salary You Want

Theories of the Origin and Evolution of Human Language

Theories of the Origin and Evolution of Human Language The expression language origins refers to theories pertaining to the emergence and development of language in human societies. Over the centuries, many theories have been put forward- and almost all of them have been challenged, discounted, and ridiculed. (See Where Does Language Come From?) In 1866, the Linguistic Society of Paris banned any discussion of the topic: The Society will accept no communication concerning either the origin of language or the creation of a universal language. Contemporary linguist Robbins Burling says that anyone who has read widely in the literature on language origins cannot escape a sneaking sympathy with the Paris linguists. Reams of nonsense have been written about the subject (The Talking Ape, 2005). In recent decades, however, scholars from such diverse fields as genetics, anthropology, and cognitive science have been engaged, as Christine Kenneally says, in a cross-discipline, multidimensional treasure hunt to find out how language began. It is, she says, the hardest problem in science today (The First Word, 2007). Observations on the Origins of Language Divine origin [is the] conjecture that human language originated as a gift from God. No scholar takes this idea seriously today. (R.L. Trask, A Students Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, 1997; rpt. Routledge, 2014) Numerous and varied explanations have been put forth to explain how humans acquired language- many of which date back to the time of the Paris ban. Some of the more fanciful explanations have been given nicknames, mainly to the effect of dismissal by ridicule. The scenario by which language evolved in humans to assist the coordination of working together (as on the pre-historic equivalent of a loading dock) has been nicknamed the yo-heave-ho model. Theres the bow-wow model in which language originated as imitations of animal cries. In the poo-poo model, language started from emotional interjections. During the twentieth century, and particularly its last few decades, discussion of language origins has become respectable and even fashionable. One major problem remains, however; most models about language origins do not readily lend themselves to the formation of testable hypotheses, or rigorous testing of any sort. What data will allow us to conclude that one model or another best explains how language arose? (Norman A. Johnson, Darwinian Detectives: Revealing the Natural History of Genes and Genomes. Oxford University Press, 2007) Physical Adaptations - Instead of looking at types of sounds as the source of human speech, we can look at the types of physical features humans possess, especially those that are distinct from other creatures, which may have been able to support speech production. . . . Human teeth are upright, not slanting outwards like those of apes, and they are roughly even in height. Such characteristics are . . . very helpful in making sounds such as f or v. Human lips have much more intricate muscle lacing than is found in other primates and their resulting flexibility certainly helps in making sounds like p, b, and m. In fact, the b and m sounds are the most widely attested in the vocalizations made by human infants during their first year, no matter which language their parents are using. (George Yule, The Study of Language, 5th ed. Cambridge University Press, 2014) -   In the evolution of the human vocal tract since the split with other apes, the adult larynx descended to its lower position. Phonetician Philip Lieberman has persuasively argued that the ultimate cause of the human lowered larynx is its function in producing different vowels. This is a case of natural selection for more effective communication. . . . Babies are born with their larynxes in a high position, like monkeys. This is functional, as there is a reduced risk of choking, and babies are not yet talking. . . . By about the end of the first year, the human larynx descends to its near-adult lowered position. This is a case of ontogeny recapitulating phylogeny, the growth of the individual reflecting the evolution of the species. (James R. Hurford, The Origins of Language. Oxford University Press, 2014) From Words to Syntax Language-ready modern children learn vocabulary voraciously before they begin to make grammatical utterances several words long. So we presume that in the origins of language a one-word stage preceded our remote ancestors first steps into grammar. The term protolanguage has been widely used to describe this one-word stage, where there is vocabulary but no grammar. (James R. Hurford, The Origins of Language. Oxford University Press, 2014) The Gesture Theory of Language Origin - Speculation about how languages originate and evolve has had an important place in the history of ideas, and it has been intimately linked to questions about the nature of the signed languages of the deaf and human gestural behavior in general. It can be argued, from a phylogenetic perspective, the origin of human sign languages is coincident with the origin of human languages; sign languages, that is, are likely to have been the first true languages. This is not a new perspectiveit is perhaps as old as nonreligious speculation about the way human language may have begun. (David F. Armstrong and Sherman E. Wilcox, The Gestural Origin of Language. Oxford University Press, 2007) - [A]n analysis of the physical structure of visible gesture provides insights into the origins of syntax, perhaps the most difficult question facing students of the origin and evolution of language . . .. It is the origin of syntax that transforms naming into language, by enabling human beings to comment on and think about the relationships between things and events, that is, by enabling them to articulate complex thoughts and, most important, share them with others. . . . We are not the first to suggest a gestural origin of language. [Gordon] Hewes (1973; 1974; 1976) was one of the first modern proponents of a gestural origins theory. [Adam] Kendon (1991: 215) also suggests that the first kind of behaviour that could be said to be functioning in anything like a linguistic fashion would have had to have been gestural. For Kendon, as for most others who consider gestural origins of language, gestures are placed in opposition to speech and vocalization. . . . While we would agree with Kendons strategy of examining the relationships among spoken and signed languages, pantomime, graphic depiction, and other modes of human representation, we are not convinced that placing gesture in opposition to speech leads to a productive framework for understanding the emergence of cognition and language. For us, the answer to the question, If language began as gesture, why did it not stay that way? is that it did. . . . All language, in the words of Ulrich Neisser (1976), is articulatory gesturing. We are not proposing that language began as gesture and became vocal. Language has been and always will be gestural (at least until we evolve a reliable and universal capacity for mental telepathy). (David F. Armstrong, William C. Stokoe, and Sherman E. Wilcox, Gesture and the Nature of Language. Cambridge University Press, 1995) - If, with [Dwight] Whitney, we think of language as a complex of instrumentalities which serve in the expression of thought (as he would sayone might not wish to put it quite like this today), then gesture is part of language. For those of us with an interest in language conceived of in this way, our task must include working out all the intricate ways in which gesture is used in relation to speech and of showing the circumstances in which the organization of each is differentiated from the other as well as the ways in which they overlap. This can only enrich our understanding of how these instrumentalities function. If, on the other hand, we define language in structural terms, thus excluding from consideration most, if not all, of the kinds of gestural usages I have illustrated today, we may be in danger of missing important features of how language, so defined, actually succeeds as an instrument of communication. Such a structural definition is valuable as a matter of convenience , as a way of delimiting a field of concern. On the other hand, from the point of view of a comprehensive theory of how humans do all the things they do by means of utterances, it cannot be sufficient. (Adam Kendon, Language and Gesture: Unity or Duality? Language and Gesture, ed. by David McNeill. Cambridge University Press, 2000) Language as a Device for Bonding [T]he size of human social groups gives rise to a serious problem: grooming is the mechanism that is used to bond social groups among primates, but human groups are so large that it would be impossible to invest enough time in grooming to bond groups of this size effectively. The alternative suggestion, then, is that language evolved as a device for bonding large social groupsin other words, as a form of grooming-at-a-distance. The kind of information that language was designed to carry was not about the physical world, but rather about the social world. Note that the issue here is not the evolution of grammar as such, but the evolution of language. Grammar would have been equally useful whether language evolved to subserve a social or a technological function. (Robin I.A. Dunbar, The Origin and Subsequent Evolution of Language. Language Evolution, ed. by Morten H. Christiansen and Simon Kirby. Oxford University Press, 2003) Otto Jespersen on Language as Play (1922) - [P]rimitive speakers were not reticent and reserved beings, but youthful men and women babbling merrily on, without being so particular about the meaning of each word. . . . They chattered away for the mere pleasure of chattering . . ..   [P]rimitive speech . . . resembles the speech of little baby himself, before he begins to frame his own language after the pattern of the grownups; the language of our remote forefathers was like that ceaseless humming and crooning with which no thoughts are as yet connected, which merely amuses and delights the little one. Language originated as play, and the organs of speech were first trained in this singing sport of idle hours. (Otto Jespersen,Language: Its Nature, Development and Origin, 1922) - It is quite interesting to note that these modern views [on the commonality of language and music and of language and dance] were anticipated in great detail by Jespersen (1922: 392-442). In his speculations about the origin of language, he arrived at the view that referential language must have been preceded by singing, which in its turn was functional in fulfilling the need for sex (or love), on the one hand, and the need for coordinating collective work, on the other. These speculations have, in turn, their origins in [Charles] Darwins 1871 book The Descent of Man: we may conclude from a widely-spread analogy that this power would have been especially exerted during the courtship of the sexes, serving to express various emotions. . . . The imitation by articulate sounds of musical cries might have given rise to words expressive of various complex emotions. (quoted from Howard 1982: 70) The modern scholars mentioned above agree in rejecting the well-known scenario according to which language originated as a system of monosyllabic grunt-like sounds that had the (referential) function of pointing at things. Instead, they propose a scenario according to which referential meaning was slowly grafted upon nearly autonomous melodious sound. (Esa Itkonen, Analogy as Structure and Process: Approaches in Linguistics, Cognitive Psychology and Philosophy of Science. John Benjamins, 2005) Divided Views on the Origins of Language (2016) Today, opinion on the matter of language origins is still deeply divided. On the one hand, there are those who feel that language is so complex, and so deeply ingrained in the human condition, that it must have evolved slowly over immense periods of time. Indeed, some believe that its roots go all the way back to  Homo habilis, a tiny-brained hominid that lived in Africa not far short of two million years ago. On the other, there are those like [Robert] Berwick and [Noam] Chomsky who believe that humans acquired language quite recently, in an abrupt event. Nobody is in the middle on this one, except to the extent that different extinct hominid species are seen as the inaugurators of language’s slow evolutionary trajectory. That this deep dichotomy of viewpoint has been able to persist (not only among linguists, but among paleoanthropologists, archaeologists, cognitive scientists, and others) for as long as anyone can remember is due to one simple fact: at least until the very recent advent of writing systems, language has left no trace in any durable record. Whether any early humans possessed language, or didn’t, has had to be inferred from indirect proxy indicators. And views have diverged greatly on the matter of what is an acceptable proxy. (Ian Tattersall, At the Birth of Language.   The New York Review of Books, August 18, 2016) Also  See Where Does Language Come From?: Five Theories on the Origins of Language Cognitive Linguistics  and  Neurolinguistics

Government funding for research benefit society.Do you agree Essay

Government funding for research benefit society.Do you agree - Essay Example Historically, R&D has been an indicator for innovation in any given country. For instance, the UK increased its spending on research and development between the years 1995 2011 to over  £27 billion (Muscio, Quaglione and Vallanti, 2013). However, there was a decline in research funding at the onset of economic crisis. Currently, UK government through RCUK (Research Councils UK) has initiated a new initiative known as Newton Fund to strengthen innovation and research (Hicks, 2012). By definition, research refers search for new concepts and knowledge while development is the process of bringing a new process or product from existing theory and knowledge (Chu, 2008). Therefore, this piece of work recommends that government funding for research benefits a society by ensuring that the country has a healthy society, productive economy and contributes to sustainability. The implication is that research and science are the heart of the nations economic growth, wider wellbeing, and prosperi ty. The conclusion as to why the government should fund research and development is always open to debate. Private sectors benefit from such initiatives, but they do not channel their benefits to societal well-being (Muscio, Quaglione, and Vallanti, 2013). However, it is the duty of the government to ensure that research and innovation is the core to economic growth. Central to this argument is that research and development has outstanding benefits to the society thus the government is obliged to channel funds to this sector. One underlying assumption for funding research is that countries use R&D to facilitate new commerce, and the aim is to improve the quality of life (Hicks, 2012). In fact, research should be part of a society’s infrastructure just like roads. As known to many, the government has the sole task of providing infrastructure, and it should take this as a responsibility. The

PROPOSAL Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

PROPOSAL - Essay Example Best for startup restaurants with limited work spaces and manpower, the SmartKitchen is designed to have all the kitchen necessities within the chef’s reach. It boasts of a refrigerator, workstation panel, cooking equipment, sink and cleaning area designed strategically within a 2x3 meter workstation. The product was also designed with small and growing families in mind. It is space friendly, yet designed to provide the best facilities for your cooking and baking requirements. The product shall be marketed by SmartKitchen Ltd., exclusive distributor in the area. Production will be outsourced in cooperation with the sub distributors of kitchen equipment in and out of the state. II. TARGET MARKET The company’s target market is startup restaurants, small to medium scale, which needs the perfect solution to space constraints. These are companies who carefully plan their space, ensuring that each square meter is fully utilized towards maximum profitability. They are open to investing in quality kitchen equipment in exchange for lower operational costs. These companies would rather allocate a bigger portion of their stores to their service areas rather than in backroom space. Secondary target market are individuals, couples or families who are also managing their spaces and would like to enjoy the benefit of having a mobile kitchen which they could use and bring with them should they design to transfer places. III. PRODUCTS AND PRICING The key to an effective pricing strategy is to find the right suppliers who will give the best price for each kitchen equipment that would be integrated in the MobileKitchen designs. Therefore, it is crucial for the purchasing team to establish good business partnerships with various suppliers to come up with excellent pricing schemes per module. The price of one module is comparative to the sum of each of the equipment featured, plus the design to make the items fit into the specific working area. The added value would b e its warranties and loyalty programs specific for design and equipment enhancement. Products will be categorized per space area, and per number of kitchen equipment integrated therein. There will be three major categories: The Basic Kitchen, The Enterprising Module and The All-Inclusive Kitchen which will occupy the biggest space of a 5x5 meter workstation. There will also be a customized MobileKitchen whereby a menu of kitchen equipment shall be presented, and which the clients can mix and match according to their requirements. Additional fees shall be charged for extra designs and features. Installation shall likewise be charged separately. IV. MARKETING PLANS The Marketing Communications would simply state the main message: â€Å"Supremacy in Quality and Style†. Such message shall be displayed in all advertising and merchandising efforts aimed at promoting the brand and the product lines themselves. All marketing channels shall be utilized. The brand shall be launched in TV and radio commercials, and also in merchandising materials, billboards and signages all over the city. Internet Marketing will likewise play a large role in product promotions. Internet Marketing has become popular because Internet access is becoming more widely available and used. Well over one-third of consumers who have Internet access at home report to using the Internet to make purchases (Benefits of an Online Marketing Approach 2011). Since target

49 Simple Things You Can Do to Save the Earth Essay Example for Free

49 Simple Things You Can Do to Save the Earth Essay Some of them, with their complicated timers and instant start-up features, constantly consume small amounts of electricity. (Even the TV? my wife asks. Good thinking, I tell her.) 3. SEPARATE YOUR GARBAGE. At our house we have separate garbage cans for glass, paper, plastic, aluminum, wood, organic matter, natural fabrics, synthetic fabrics, and rubber. (We split the work—my wife does the separating, I drop everything off at the recycling center.) 4. USE LESS WATER. We have two bricks in our toilet tank. But theres a much simpler way to save water: Dont flush every time! (Dont take the sports section in there with you! is my wifes tip. A sense of humor isso important.) 5. DONT MOW THE LAWN. Let it grow. Naturally. Like a meadow. (Like a dump! jokes my wife.) See more:  Perseverance essay 6. DONT SHAVE AS OFTEN. I shave once a week. (If its good enough for Don Johnson, I quip. That was passà © years ago, my wife informs me.) 7. DRIVE SLOWER. I try to maintain a nice, steady 40 miles per hour, the legal minimum on most highways. Also, I roll up the windows. It reduces wind resistance and noise. (You cant hear those horns? my wife asks, incredulous.) 8. SHOP WITH A RE-USABLE SHOPPING BAG. And, if you can, walk to the store. (Itll do wonders for your figure, I mention casually to the missus.) 9. BOYCOTT! Boycott polluters, or anyone who sells any product that can cause pollution, or any product that might contain an ingredient that can cause pollution. (What does that leave? my wife asks. Just the good stuff, I reply.) 1 0. DO YOUR LAUNDRY BY HAND. It may be drudgery of the lowest order to have to hand-launder your clothes and hang them on a clothesline, but it saves water and energy. (Whistle while you work, I kid my wife. Hitler is a jerk, she continues. Id forgotten that verse!) 11. TURN DOWN THE HEAT. Especially the water heater. (They take cold showers in Sweden, I like to hint. Go to Sweden!—my wife.) 12. TAKE FEWER SHOWERS. But dont share them, even if its been touted, albeit humorously, in other x-number-of-simple-things-you-can-do-to-save-the-earth books. Why? It uses more water. Figure it out for yourself. Better would be to take a bath in recycled bath water. Best: An occasional sponge bath. (No, Im not kidding, I tell the wife.) 13. REPLACE METAL DOORKNOBS. During the winter, when its very dry, touch a metal doorknob and you get a little shock from the static electricity. Thats wasted electricity, I figure. Weve replaced all our metal doorknobs with ones made of non-conducting rubber, wood or glass. (Youve got a screw loose, my wife points out. And shes right!) 14. GO SOLAR. For a small investment of about ten thousand dollars you can convert your house to solar energy. Itll pay for itself in twenty years, I estimate. (What next? my wife wonders, as we all do.) 15. MOUNT A WINDMILL ON YOUR ROOF. Its cheap—about eight hundred dollars—and easy to install. (A little more to the right, I yell up to her.) 16. MAKE YOUR OWN HONEY. In addition to producing delicious honey, our beehive is a real conversation starter. (We have to talk, my wife says. See?) 17. WORK AT HOME. Recently, I quit my job of twenty years to become a full-time writer. I write at home, on a computer. Im not using up any gasoline or motor oil, Im not wearing out any clothing or shoes. To put it simply: Im not a drain on the environment. (You dont move, my wife observes, exaggerating slightly.) 18. BOARD UP THE WINDOWS. Windows are nice, but they either let in too much heat, or let out too much, or vice versa. (This is better than mini-blinds! I shout to the wife, who can barely hear me over her own hammering.) 1 9. GET RID OF THE TELEPHONE. Think you cant live without a telephone? Think again. Weve done fine. (Who would call us? my wife rationalizes.) 20. GET RID OF THE BED. Many leading chiropractors say that sleeping on the floor, with no mattress or cushion, is the best way to sleep. (We certainly havent needed a bed much lately, my wife confides to a mutual friend.) 21. GET OUT AND ORGANIZE. At my wifes suggestion, I got out of the house and into the community—to organize. Now I work with a diverse group of community activists and we meet four times a week—at our house. (Whoare these people? my wife asks. They are the people, I tell her proudly.) 22. BAN ALL CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS. Not just spray cans, but the refrigerator and the air conditioner. Get rid of them! We now have ice delivered to our house every day. (Youre crazy! my wife shouts from the kitchen. So was Van Gogh! I shout back.) 23. TREAT WOUNDS NATURALLY. If youre injured, cut on the head, above the eyebrow—from a sharp piece of ice, lets say—treat it naturally. Salt and lemon juice is the combination my wife favors. (I want a divorce, she says, pouring salt on my wound. Ouch! I say.) 24. KNOW THE LAW. And know a good lawyer. (My wife does.) 25. WHEN YOU MOVE, BE A GOOD NEIGHBOR. Having recently relocated to a smaller environment—an apartment—I can empathize with anyone who has had to go through a moving experience as I call it. Remember, along with a new habitat come new co-inhabitants. Get to know them. They are your neighbors and, as simplistic as this sounds, they are the keys to your survival. (When I explain this simplistic theory to one of my new neighbors, shes fascinated. Maybe the beard works!) 26. CARPOOL. At my new part-time job I carpool with a couple of the ladies from the office. Were saving gas, money, and were getting to know each other better. (He used to have a fear of intimacy, my wife tells the judge. On the advice of Barry, my lawyer, I can say nothing.) 27. MAKE LOVE, NOT WAR. I know, I know. But, if I could just use one earth-saving tip to draw your attention to the beautiful and cosmic experience of making love with a truly giving and understanding sexual partner. (Takethat, you lying, blood-sucking witch!) 28. SHARE YOUR SHOWERS. Ive done a complete one-eighty on this one. Use a kitchen timer. (Or Ravels Bolero!) 29. WOMEN! Or should I say, women judges! (This just in: She gets the car, the house—everything except the profits from this book, Dear Reader.) 30. YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE. When someone (especially someone much younger and less experienced than yourself that you only met two weeks ago) tells you that one person cant make a difference—that no matter how much shouting and yelling and whining and complaining one person does nothing will change, that youre too old to be acting that way, that you should settle down and focus on one thing and do that well—when someone lays that trip on you, its time to split. (I can make a difference! I tell her, gathering my things.) 31. BUNDLE AND RECYCLE NEWSPAPERS. Sorry, I lost sight of what were trying to do here, which is save the earth. Take all your old newspapers, bundle them together, and bring them to a recycling center. Theyll give you a few bucks, which is nothing to sneeze at. (What happened?) 32. BUY A RECYCLED CAR. There are some good deals in used cars—if you take the time to look. (I didnt, and boy am I sorry.) 33. DONT LITTER THE HIGHWAYS. Be considerate. There are laws, but theyre rarely enforced. (Except in my case, of course. I told the officer I wasnt living in my car—it had broken down, I was tired—but: A $100 fine for vagrancy, a night in jail, a towing charge of $75, and a ticket—Im getting rid of this damn car!) 34. KEEP FIGHTING. Thats right. No matter how tough it gets, the fight to save the earth will go on, with or without you. (Right now its without. Im back to my old habits again—smoking, drinking, and hanging out with a bunch of losers. One of them is a real nut, calls himself The Master.) 35. DONATE OLD CLOTHING. There are people out there who can get some good use out of your old moth-eaten sweater or sports jacket or worn-out pair of shoes. (Im a 41 short.) 36. FOLLOW THE MASTER. The Master has forged an alliance with the human spirit that allows him to speak directly and simultaneously to every living thing on this planet. (Follow The Master.) 37. THINK FOR YOURSELF. Take it from someone who, after having his self-esteem obliterated by a persuasive con man and his gang of sycophants, escaped on foot—with nothing to eat for nine days but wild berries and mushrooms—and lived to talk about it! (You might have seen the story in the papers—DAZED FOLLOWER OF DIZZY GURU FOUND ON FREEWAY) 38. HI, HOW ARE YOU? I knew it was her before I picked up the phone. (The cobwebs that covered the receiver were now sticking to my face. Fine, I said.) 39. DONT BE FOOLED. A wise consumer is a protected consumer. (I told my ex this when we got together for some Irish coffee at the mini-mall, near the old house. She ended up selling that barn for—get this—$650,000! Honey, it seems like old times! I whooped.) 40. RECYCLE! REVIVE! RERUN! Excuse my exuberance, but something is finally happening out there—something positive, something good. People are separating their garbage. Theyre using biodegradable, ecologically safe, recyclable and reusable materials. Everything old is new again! (When my ex-wife and I decided to re-marry, I suggested a Save the Earth clause be added to our pre-nuptial agreement. We have to talk, she said, showing great interest at the time.) 41. MOVE TO THE COUNTRY. Inherit the land again. Thats what we did. Bought forty-three acres in Upstate New York. Its a working farm, where my wife can go out to the barn and milk the cows, pick out the freshest eggs and knit our clothes from the wool she shears from our very own sheep. (And I can finish this book!)

Dvorak :: essays research papers

Dvorak   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Antonin Dvorak was born in Nelahozeves on September 8, 1841. Dvorak was one of the greatest of the Czech composers. He grew up with an appreciation of local folk songs and demonstrated a talent for music at an early age. His first experience with music was of a violinist and violist. He got the attention of Johannes Brahms with his Moravian Duets and soon won a competition in Vienna that he would have never won if it had not been for the insistence of Brahms. Since his patriotic composition, Hymnus, was so popular in 1873, he decided to dedicate himself to composing and teaching music.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Unlike most of the contemporaries, Dvorak was not a pianist/composer. His compositions for the piano are rare. His piano compositions have a quality that makes them both beautiful and powerful. Someone said that they are much like a jewel: they are revered by those who appreciate the beauty of their shape, the smoothly polished surface, and the glow that comes from within.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As his fame spread throughout Europe, it spread to the United States as well. He was invited in 1892 to the National Conservatory in New York City where he became the artistic director. At the time, he was earning a little less than $500 a month as a professor at the Prague Conservatory. When he took the job at the National Conservatory, he made a salary of $15,000 a year. He served at the Conservatory for three years and wrote some of his best-known music during his time, which includes his Symphony #9 in E minor.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When in New York City at the Conservatory of Music, Dvorak taught composition three mornings a week and conducted choir and orchestra another three mornings. He encouraged his students to develop their own â€Å"American style†. He also encouraged them to develop the folk songs and â€Å"plantation music† of the South.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dvorak was nationalistic in his earlier works back home; the New World was a nationalistic composition for America. The time he spent working on the New World made him homesick for his native home; Bohemia. His personal secretary suggested the family go to the tiny Czech community in Iowa, known as Spillville. The village was located on a river and the hills and countryside reminded Dvorak of his native Bohemia. In Spillville, everyone spoke Czech and the Catholic Church had an organ that Dvorak would be able to play.

Cause And Effects Of Soil Erosion Environmental Sciences Essay

The Latin word erodere, intending â€Å" to gnaw away † is the beginning of the word eroding ( Roose, 1996 ) . Soil Erosion is the physical remotion of surface soil by assorted agents, including falling raindrops, H2O fluxing over the dirt profile and gravitative pull ( Lal 1990 ) . The Soil Science Society of America defines eroding as â€Å" the have oning off of the land surface by running H2O, air current, ice or other geological agents, including such procedures as gravitative weirdo † ( SCSA, 1982 ) . Physical eroding involves the withdrawal and transit of indissoluble dirt atoms ( sand, silt and organic affair ) . Removal of soluble stuff as dissolved substances is called chemical eroding and this possibly caused by surface overflow or subsurface flow where the H2O moves from one bed to another within the dirt profile ( Lal 1990 ) . Harmonizing to ASCE, 1975, the physical procedures in dirt eroding include withdrawal of dirt atoms, their transit and subsequent deposition of dirt deposits descent by raindrop impact and overflow over the dirt surface. Rainfall is the most of import detaching agent ( Morgan and Davidson 1986 ; Lal, 1990 ) followed by overland flow in entraining dirt atoms ( Lal 1990 ) . The procedure of dirt eroding occurs in three chief stairss, withdrawal of dirt atoms, transit and deposition of dirt atoms downslope by raindrop impact and overflow over the dirt surface ( ASCE 1975 ; Morgan and Davidson, 1986, Lal 1990 ) followed by overland flow in entraining dirt atoms ( Lal, 1990 ) . Soil eroding reduces soil productiveness by physical loss of surface soil, decrease in rooting deepness and loss of H2O. In contrast dirt, dirt depletion means loss or diminution of dirt birthrate due to harvest remotion or remotion of foods by eluviations from H2O go throughing through the dirt profile ( Lal, 1990 ) . Sedimentation nevertheless, causes off site effects like debasement of basins, accretion of silts in H2O reservoirs and entombment of low-lying productive countries and other jobs ( Lal, 1990 ) . Sediments is the chief cause of pollution and eutrophication ( Lal, 1990 ) . Harmonizing to Lal 1990, dirt debasement may be caused by accelerated dirt eroding, depletion thr ough intensive land usage, impairment in dirt construction, alterations in dirt pH, leaching, salt accretion, construct up of toxic elelments such as aluminium or Zn, inordinate flood taking to cut down dirt conditions and hapless aeration. Soil Erosion is the most serious and least reversible signifier of land debasement ( Lal, 1977 ; El-Swaify, Dangler and Amstrong, 1982 ) . Soil eroding and dirt loss, harmonizing to Lal ( 1990 ) have inauspicious effects on agribusiness because they deplete the dirt ‘s productiveness and decrease the resourse base.2.2 Soil Erosion ProcessGeologic eroding can be caused by a figure of natural agents including rainfall, fluxing H2O and ice, air current and the the mass motion of dirt organic structures under the action of gravitation which cause the disentangled or dissolved crude and stone stuffs to be removed from a topographic point and finally deposited to a new location ( Lal,1990 ; Morgan and Davidson, 1986 ) . The Soil Science Society of America ( SCSA, 1982 ) described geologic eroding as â€Å" the normal or natural eroding caused by geologic procedures moving over long periods and ensuing in the have oning off of mountains, the edifice up of inundation fields, coastal f ields. Etc. † The slow and constructive natural dirt eroding procedure has been significantly accelerated by human activities of hapless agriculture patterns, overgrazing, land glade for building, logging and excavation ( Lo, 1990 ) . Accelerated eroding non merely affects the dirt but besides the environment and is the primary cause of dirt debasement ( Lal, 1990 ) . Agribusiness has been identified as the primary cause of accelerated dirt eroding ( Pimentel, 1976 ) .2.3 Soil Characteristics in the Torrid zonesExtremes of clime and broad assortment of parent stuffs cause great contrast of dirt belongingss in the Torrid Zones from dirts in other temperate parts. In the Torrid Zones dirts are extremely variable and diverse like the flora ( Sanchez and Buoi, 1975 ; Van Wambeke, 1992 ) . The chief dirt types are alfisols, oxisols, ultisols and inceptisols ( El-Swaify, 1990 ) . Tropical dirts low in weatherable minerals and basic cations ( Na, Ca, Mg, and K ) resulted from uninter rupted weathering of parent stuffs ( Lo, 1990 ) . The ability of these dirts to maintain works foods is mostly dependent on the humus content found in works biomass and the organic affair ( Rose,1993 ) . The inaction of dirt mineral components ( china clay and sesquioxides ) in these dirts, causes lack in harvest foods, lowers the capacity to retain basic cations, bounds active relationship with organic affair and overly immobilizes phosphates and related anions, a status which are extremely toxic to works roots ( Lo, 1990 ) . Crop production in tropical dirts are constrained by chiefly aluminum- derived dirt sourness and sterility but by and large their physical belongingss are favorable ( El-Swaify, 1990 ) . Tropic dirts have moderate to high permeableness under natural conditions, but susceptible to quenching and development of impermeable crust upon action of raindrops and as a consequence overflow additions with uninterrupted cultivation ( Lal, 1982 ) . This crusting cause undi stinguished decrease of filtration rate, increasing H2O overflow which leads to acceleration of dirt eroding ( Falayl and Lal, 1979 ) . It is of import to observe nevertheless that heavy and intense rains cause terrible eroding in the Torrid Zones ( Morgan, 1974 ; Wilkinson 1975 ; Amezquita and Forsythe, 1975 ; Lal 1976 ; Aina, Lal and Taylor, 1977 ; Bois, 1978 ; Sheng 1982 ) .2.4 Soil Erosion on Steep SlopeHarmonizing to Lal 1990, Steeplands refer to lands with a incline gradient greater than 20 % . It is of import to observe nevertheless that level rippling lands have a great potency for harvest production and agricultural development. Due to the possibility of dirt eroding and the job of mechanisation, the steep countries are considered fringy for agribusiness production ( Lal, 1990 ) . The hard topography in steepland agribusiness restricts mechanisations of operations therefore, cut downing all agricultural activities ( land readying, cultivation and harvest home ) , restricting the husbandman in graduated table and efficiency. Input signals such as fertiliser and pesticides have to be carried manually by the husbandman. As a resulted they are used barely. Perceptibly any addition in the usage of these agricultural inputs will ensue in diminution in he husbandmans net incomes from the by and large lower agricultural field ( Benvenuti, 1988 ) . For all these grounds steepland husbandmans tend to concentrate in high value harvest production of limited graduated table ( Ahmad, 1987 ; Ahmad 1990 ) . It is of import to observe nevertheless that husbandmans prefer steepslopes due to cultural manus cultivation, seting and reaping can be done in an unsloped manner ( Williams and Walter, 1988 ) . Futher more subsistence husbandmans are found on steep inclines because of mo re favorable environmental conditions such as lower temperatures, reduced diseases and higher dependability of rainfall. ( Hurni, 1988 ) . In the Torrid Zones, remotion of forest flora causes inordinate leaching and accelerated dirt alimentary loss. Being extremely weathered dirt types, their contained minerals by and large have hapless ability to retain occluded foods against leaching. Clay soils with high residualmiron contents are considered superior in opposition to runoff caused dirt eroding ; therefore, dirts emanated from basic pyrogenic stones and ruddy dirts developed from chalky stones are strongly aggregated due to the cementing belongings of Fe oxides, hence, dirt eroding is expected to be less than for most other dirts. Besides soils developed from fragmental volcanic stuffs with andic belongingss are immune to dirty eroding ( Sheng, 1986 ; Ahmad, 1987 ; Ahmad, 1990 ; Lal, 1990 ) . Soils formed from shales, schists, phyillites and sandstones are considered extremely erodible. Dirts produced from these stones are high in both sand or silt fraction, and clay minerals and Fe oxides are by and large deficient a s cementing agents for a stable-structured dirt. These parent stuffs are by and large rich in Muscovite occurring in all dirt particle-size fractions. Micah-rich dirts are weak-structured, and therefore raindrops can easy free the weak sums, while the clay fraction dispersed in H2O. The ensuing isinglass flakes settling on their level axes in the H2O movie on the dirt surface causes dirt crusting. The formation of dirt crusts further restricts H2O entry into the dirt ( Ahmad and Robin, 1971 ; Sumner, 1995 ) , ensuing to disposal of a much greater volume of overflow H2O, a status which leads to farther decomposition of dirt sums and conveyance of colloidal dirt stuff ( Ahmad, 1987 ; Ahmad 1990 ) . Soil crust restricts gaseous exchange taking to anaerobic dirt conditions, denitrification, toxic effects due to ethylene production, and mechanical electric resistance to seedling outgrowth ( Ahmad 1987 ; Ahmad, 1990 ) . Steep incline cultivation can do certain instability in the ecological system with both onsite and offsite damaging impacts ( El-Swaify, Garnier and Lo, 1987 ) . Soil, clime, land usage and farming systems affect the extent and the grade of badness of dirt eroding. However, irrespective of dirt and climatic conditions, intensively used steeplands in dumbly populated parts experience terrible dirt eroding job. Land usage influences the grade of badness of dirt eroding on steeplands. Uncontrollable graze or over graze, exensive and opprobrious cultivation, diversified cropping are responsible for terrible dirt eroding in unprotected cultivable lands ( Roose, 1988 ; Liao et Al 1988 ) . Ahmad ( 1987 ; 1990 ) reportd soil loss of about 120 t0 180 metric tons per hectare in Tobago Trinidad. In Australia, one-year dirt loss of 200 t/ha to 328 t/ha has ben reported from inclining sugar cane plantations in cardinal and north Queensland ( Sallaway, 1979 ; Mathews and Makepeace 1981 ) . There are two types of dirt eroding associated with the Caribbean part, land slipping and gullying. Land slipping is a manifestation of mass motion associated with steepland agribusiness and the badness being strongly influenced by the parent stuffs. Land glade ( illustration deforestation ) and harvest production can act upon land stealing peculiarly in the early part of the moisture season when the cleared dirt moistures faster due to impregnation of the dirt above stone. Serious disruptions, harvest loss and devastation of any mechanical anti eroding devices can ensue from this signifier of mass motions. Due to drastic alterations in hydrological conditions experienced by land of course prone already to stealing and cleared for agribusiness for the first clip land slippage would be of common experience ( Ahmad 1987 ; Ahmad 1990 ) . Gullying is another common signifier of dirt eroding that occurs on steep land bcause of the terrain involved. This is more common on flaxen dirts, volcanic dirts and vertisols, which are all porous stuffs. Soils easy attain concentrated conditions upon the rapid entry of H2O, accordingly interrupting the stuff and finally, taking to the formation of gullies. Agricultural activities enables this dirt eroding in steeplands by leting rapid dirt wetting upon the start of the moisture season. Farming activities though inappropriately oriented field boundaries, pes paths and the deficiency of proviso for disposal of surface H2O are some chief causes of gullying, even on dirts non prone to this tpe of steepland dirt eroding ( Ahmad 1987 ; Ahmad 1990 ) . Since steeplands are traditionally considered fringy for agricultural harvest production, most research on dirt eroding and dirt preservation has been done on either level land or ‘ rolled land with a maximal incline of approximately 20 % ‘ ( Lal, 1988 ) .2.5 Factors Affecting Soil ErosionThe causes of dirt eroding have been intensively discussed during the past 40 old ages. Soil eroding is a natural procedure that is enhanced by human activity ( Richter, 1998 ) and occurs in all landscapes and under different land utilizations. In add-on to human activities, dirt eroding procedures are besides caused by morphometric features of the land surface, the erosive forces of rainfall and the erodibility of dirts and dirt surfaces. When rainwater reaches the dirt surface it will either come in the dirt or run off. Runoff occurs when the rainfall strength exceeds the infiltration capacity of the dirt. Water eroding is the consequence of the scattering action of rain beads, the transporting power of H2O and besides the exposure of the dirt to scattering and motion ( Baver and Gardner, 1972 ) . The effects of dirt eroding is besides classified: definition of gullies and account of gully development is given by Morgan ( 1996 ) , every bit good as Hudson ( 1995 ) who to boot focuses on single instances of the development of gullies. Toy et Al ( 2002 ) give elaborate definitions of dirt eroding characteristics and procedures such as sheet eroding and inter-rill eroding, rill eroding, every bit good as passing and lasting gully eroding. Rill erodibility depends both straight and indirectly on dirt belongingss such as majority denseness, organic C and clay content, clay mineralogy, cations in the exchange composite, dirt pH and experimental conditions such as wet content, aging of prewetted dirt and quality of gnawing H2O ( Rapp,1998 ) . Govers ( 1990 ) found that overflow eroding resisitance of a loamy stuff was highly sensitive to fluctuation in the initial wet content and to a lesser extent to alterations in majority denseness. The procedure of H2O eroding can be separated into two constituents, rivulet and interrill eroding ( Young and Onstad, 1978 ) . Interrill eroding ( sheet eroding ) is chiefly caused by raindrop impact and removes dirt in a thin about unperceivable bed ( Foster, 1989 ) . In interril eroding the flow of H2O is by and large unconfined, except between dirt balls and screens much of the dirt surface. As the speed of flow increases the H2O incises into the dirt and rivulets signifiers ( Evans,1980 ) . Rill eroding begins when the gnawing capacity of the flow at some point exceeds the ability of the dirt atoms to resistant withdrawal by flow ( Meyer cited by Rapp, 1998 ) . Soil is detached by headcut progress from knickpoints ( De Ploey, 1989 ; Bryan, 1990 ) , rill slide shedding and hydraulic shear emphasis ( Foster cited by Rapp, 1998 ) every bit good as by slouching by underselling of side walls and scour hole formation ( Van Liew and Saxton, 1983 ) . These procedures are normally combined into a withdrawal anticipation equation as a map of mean shear emphasis ( Foster cited by Rapp, 1998 ) . When the rivulets develop in the landscape, a three to five fold addition in the dirt loss commonly occurs ( Moss, Green and Hutka 1982 and Meyer and Harmon 1984 ) .2.5.1 Vegetative FactorsThe effects of flora can be classified into three catergories: The interception of raindrops by the canopy ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . Two effects are associated with this. First, portion of the intercepted H2O will vaporize from the foliages and roots and therefore cut down overflow. Second, when raindrops strike the flora, the energy of the beads is dissipated and there is no direct impact on the dirt surface. The interception per centum depends on the type of harvest, the growing phase and the figure of workss per unit country. A well distributed, near turning surface vegetive screen will decelerate down the rate at which H2O flows down the incline and will besides cut down concentration of H2O ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . As a consequence, it will diminish the erosive action of running H2O. There is besides the consequence of roots and biological activity on the formation of stable aggregrates, which consequences in a stable dirt construction and increased infiltration that reduces overflow and decreases eroding ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . Increased permeableness besides reduces eroding as a consequence of in increased H2O infiltration due to better drainage. Stables aggregrates in the surface soil besides counteract crusting.2.5.2 Rainfall FactorsRaindrop size, form, continuance of a storm and weave velocity interactions controls the erosive power of rainfall ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . The erosivity of rainfall is expressed in footings of kinetic energy and is affected by assorted factors. Harmonizing to Wischmeier and Smith ( 1965 ) , the strength of rainfall is closely related tot vitamin E kinetic energy, harmonizing to the arrested development equation E = 1.213 + 0.890 log I Where E = the kinetic energy ( kg.m/m2.mm ) I = rainfall strength ( mm/h ) Raindrop size, distribution and form all influence the energy impulse of a rainstorm. Laws and Parson ( 1943 ) reported an addition in average bead size with addition in rain strength. The relationship between average bead size ( D50 ) and rainfall is given by: D50:2.23 I 0.182 ( inch per hr ) . The average size of rain beads increases with low and average strength autumn, but declines somewhat for high strength rainfall ( Gerrard, 1981 ) . The kinetic energy of an rainfall event is besides related to the speed of the raindrops at the clip of impact with the dirt ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . The distance through which the rain bead must fall to keep terminal speed is a map of bead size. The kinetic energy of a rainstorm is related to the terminal speed harmonizing to the equation: Ek = IV2/2 Where Ek = energy of the rain storm I = Intensity V= Velocity of raindrop before impact Ellison ( 1945 ) developed an equation demoing that the relationship between the dirt detached, terminal speed, bead diameter and rainfall strength: E = KV4.33 d1.07 I0.63 Where E = comparative sum of dirt detached K = dirt invariable V = speed of raindrops ( ft/sec ) vitamin D = diameter of raindrops ( millimeter ) I = rainfall strength 2.5.2.1 Effect of rainfall strength on overflow and dirt loss Harmonizing to Morgan ( 1995 ) , soil loss is closely related to rainfall partially through the detaching power of raindrops striking the dirt surface and the part of rain to runoff. If rainfall strength is less than the infiltration capacity of the dirt, no surface overflow occurs and the infiltration rate would be the rainfall strength ( Horton, 1945 ) as sited by Morgan ( 1995 ) . If the rainfall strength exceeds the infiltration capacity, the infiltration rate peers the infiltration capacity and the extra rainfall signifiers surface overflow. Harmonizing to Morgan ( 1995 ) , when the dirt is unsaturated, the dirt matric potency is negative and H2O is held in the capillaries due to matrics suction. For this ground, under saturated conditions littorals may bring forth runoff really rapidly although their infiltration capacity is non exceeded by the rainfall strength. Intensity partly controls hydraulic conduction, increasing the rainfall strength may do conduction to lift so that although overflow may hold formed quickly at comparatively low rainfall strength, higher rainfall strengths do non ever produce greater overflow ( Morgan, 1995 ) . This mechanism explains the ground why infiltration rates sometimes increase with rainfall strengths ( Nassif and Wilson, 1975 ) .2.5.3 Soil FactorsHarmonizing to Baver et Al, ( 1972 ) , the consequence of dirt belongingss on H2O eroding can be in two ways: First, certain belongingss determine the rate at which rainfall enters the dirt. Secondly, some belongingss affect the opposition of the dirt against scattering and eroding during rainfall and overflow. The atom size distribution is an of import dirt belongings with respects to erodibility. Generally it is found that erodible dirts have a low clay content ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . Soils with more than 35 % clay are frequently regarded as being cohesive and holding stable sums which are immune to scattering by raindrops ( Evans, 1980 ) . Evans besides stated that littorals and harsh loamy littorals are non easy eroded by H2O due to its high infiltration rate. In contrast dirts with a high silt or all right sand fraction are really erodible. Erodibility of dirt additions with the proportion of sums less than 0.5mm ( Bryan, 1974 ) . Factors which contribute to aggregate stableness include organic affair content, root secernments, gluey gels formed by interrupt down of organic affair, the binding of atoms by sesquioxides and the presence of a high Ca concentration on the exchange sites of the colloids alternatively of a high Na content ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . The deepness of eroding is determined by the dirt profile ( Evans, 1980 ) . Harmonizing to Evans dirt skylines below the A skyline or plough bed are frequently more compact and less erodible. The texture and chemical composing of the sub surface skyline can besides hold an inauspicious consequence. Normally deep gullies can be cut if the parent stuff is unconsolidated. If immune bedrock is near the surface merely rills will develop. Soil rich in surface rocks are less susceptible to eroding ( Lamb, 1950 and Evans, 1980 ) . Rocks protect the dirt against eroding and besides increase the infiltration of the streamlined H2O into the dirt. The antecedent dirt wet and the surface raggedness are both regarded by Evans ( 1980 ) as of import dirt factors impacting eroding. The ability of a dirt to accept rainfall depends on the wet content at the clip of the rainfall event. 2.5.3.1 Factors impacting aggregative stableness Dirt construction is determined by the form and size distribution of sums. Aggregrate size and strengthe determine the physical belongingss of a dirt and its susceptibleness to breakdown due to H2O forces. Their stableness will hold a decisive consequence on dirt physical belongingss ( Lynch and Bragg, 1985 ) . The chief binding stuffs giving stable sums in air dry province are the pasting agents in organic affair ( Chaney and Swift, 1984 ; Tisdale and Oades, 1982 ) and sesquioxides ( Goldberg and Glaubic, 1987 ) . 2.5.3.1.1 Aluminium and Iron Oxides The dirt used by Kemper and Koch ( 1966 ) contained comparatively small free Fe, although it did lend to aggregrate stableness. Their informations show a crisp addition of free Fe from 1 to 3 % . Goldberg and Glaubic ( 1987 ) concluded that Al-oxides were more effectual than Fe-oxides in stabilising dirt construction. Al-oxides have a greater proportion of sub-micrometer size atoms in a sheet signifier as opposed to the spherical signifier of Fe-particles. Shainberg, Singer and Janitzky ( 1987 ) compared the consequence of aluminum and Fe oxides on the hydraulic conduction of a flaxen dirt. 2.5.3.1.2 Organic Matter Organic affair can adhere dirt atoms together into stable dirt sums. The stabilising consequence of organic affair is good documented. Little elaborate information is available on the organic affair content required to sufficiently beef up sums with ESP values greater than 5 or 7, and incorporating illite or montmorrillionite, so as to forestall their scattering in H2O ( Smith, 1990 ) . High humus content makes the dirt less susceptible to the unfavorable influence of Na ( Van den Berg, De Boer, Van der Malen, Verhoeven, Westerhof and Zuur, 1953 ) . Kemper and Koch ( 1966 ) besides found that aggregative stableness increased with an addition in the organic affair content of dirts. A maximal addition of aggregative stableness was found with up to 2 % organic affair, after which aggregative stableness increased really small with farther additions in organic affair content.2.5.3 Slope FactorsSlope features are of import in finding the sum of overflow and eroding ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . As slope gradient additions, overflow and eroding normally increases ( Stern, 1990 ) . At low inclines due to the low overland flow speeds, withdrawal of dirt atoms from the dirt surface into the H2O bed is due to detachment entirely ( Stern, 1990 ) . Additionally, at low incline gradients, atoms are splashed into the air in random waies unlike the instance with steeply inclining land where down incline splash occurs ( Watson and Laflen, 1985 ) . As incline gradient additions, the ability for surface overflow to entrain and transport deposits increases quickly until the entrainment by the surface overflow becomes dominant lending to sediment conveyance ( Stern, 1990 ) . Foster, Meyer and Onstad ( 1976 ) presented a conceptual theoretical account that showed that at lower inclines, interill conveyance determined eroding, while at steeper inclines, raindrop withdrawal determined it. Th unvarying bed features of sheet flow conveyance tend to be replaced by channels because of instability and turbulent flow effects ( Moss, Green and Hutka, 1982 ) . There are many empirical relationships associating dirt conveyance by surface wash to incline length and incline gradient. Zingg ( 1940 ) showed that eroding varied harmonizing to the equation: S = X1.6 tanB1.4 Where S = dirt conveyance cm/yr Ten = incline length ( m ) B = incline gradient ( % ) Surveies conducted by Gerrard ( 1981 ) , showed that plane and convex inclines did non differ significantly in the sum of dirt lost by surface overflow, but concave inclines were less eroded. Some research workers such as Zingg ( 1940 ) and Mc Cool et Al ( 1987 ) indicated that dirt eroding additions exponentially with addition in slope gradient. The relationship is indicated after Zing ( 1940 ) by: Tocopherol = aSb where Tocopherol is the dirt eroding, S is the incline gradient ( % ) and a and B are empirical invariables. The value of B scopes from 1.35 to 2.0. The other relationship between eroding and incline gradient for inter-rill eroding is given by Mc Cool et Al ( 1987 ) E = a wickedness B Q+C Q is the incline angle in grades A, B and C are empirical invariables. However, even if the consequence of incline gradient on eroding is good recognized, several surveies indicate that the power relationship between incline gradient and dirt loss over predicts interrill eroding rate by every bit much as two or more times ( Torri, 1996 ; Fox and Bryan, 1999 ) , and the relationship is better described as linear.2.8 Soil Erosion Impacts2.8.1 Soil Physical Properties Progressive dirt eroding increases the magnitude of dirt related restraints for harvest production. These restraints can be physical, chemical and biological. The of import physical restraints caused by eroding are reduced rooting deepness, loss of dirt H2O hive awaying capacity ( Schertz et al 1984 ; Sertsu, 2000 ) , crusting and dirt compression and hardening of plinthite ( Lal, 1988 ) . Erosion besides consequences in the loss of clay colloids due to discriminatory remotion of all right atoms from the dirt surface ( Fullen and Brandsma, 1995 ) . The loss of clay influences soil tilth and consistence. Exposed undersoil is frequently of monolithic construction and harder consistence than the aggregative surface dirt ( Lal, 1988 ) . Development of rivulets and gullies may alter the micro-relief that may do usage of farming machinery hard. Another consequence of eroding is that the manangement and timing of farm operations. 2.8.2 Soil Chemical Properties Soil eroding reduces the birthrate position of dirts ( Morgan, 1986 ; Williams et al. , 1990 ) . Soil chemical restraints and nutritionary jobs related to dirty eroding include low CEC, low works foods ( NPK ) and trace elements ( Lal, 1988 ; Fullen and Brandsma, 1995 ) . Massy et Al ( 1953 ) reported an mean loss of 192 kilograms of organic affair, 10.6 kilogram of N and 1.8kg per hour angle on a Winsconsin dirts with 11 % incline. Sharpley and Smith ( 1990 ) reported that the average one-year loss of entire P in overflow from P fertilized water partings is tantamount to an norm of 15 % , 12 % and 32 % of the one-year fertiliser P applied to wheat, assorted harvest grass and peanut – sorghum rotary motion patterns severally. Researchers ( Massy et al 1953 ; Lal, 1975 ) have besides reported extended loss of N in scoured deposits. 2.8.3 Productiveness Quantifying the effects on harvest outputs is a hard undertaking. It involves the rating of interactions between dirt belongingss, harvest features and clime. The effects are besides cumulative and non observed until long after accelerated eroding begins. The grade of dirt eroding ‘s effects on harvest output depends on dirt profile features and direction systems. It is hard to set up a direct relationship between rates of dirt eroding and eroding induced dirt debasement on the one manus and harvest output on the other ( Lal, 1988 ) . It is good known that dirt eroding can cut down harvest outputs through loss of foods, structural debasement and cut down of deepness and H2O keeping capacity ( Timilin et al, 1986 ; Lal,1988 ) . Loss of production in scoured dirt further degrades its productiveness which in bend accelerates soil eroding. The cumulative consequence observed over a long period of clip may take to irreversible loss of productiveness in shoal dirts with hard-boiled plinthite or in dirts that respond to expensive direction and extra inputs ( Lal,1988 ) . 2.8.4 Off Site Effects of Soil Erosion. Effectss of eroding include siltation of rivers, harvest failure at low lying countries due to deluging, pollution of waterbodies due to the assorted chemicals brought by the overflow from different countries. Several surveies reported the significance of the off site effects of dirt eroding on land debasement ( eg. Wall and ven Den,1987 ; Lo, 1990 ; Robertson and Colletti, 1994 ; Petkovic et Al, 1999 ) Rainwater washes off stuffs that originate from fertilisers and assorted biocides ( antifungals, insect powders, weedkillers and pesticides ) which are applied in big concentrations. They reappear in greatr measures in the hydrosphere polluting and polluting the H2O environment ( Zachar,1982 ; Withers, and Lord, 2002 ; Verstraeten and Poesen, 2002 ) . Chemical pollution of H2O chiefly by organic affair from farm Fieldss causes rapid eutrophication in waterways ( Zachar, 1982 ; Zakova et Al, 1993 ; Lijklema, 1995 ) .2.8.5 Soil Erosion ModelsModeling dirt eroding is the procedure of mathematically depicting dirt atom withdrawal, conveyance and deposition on land surfaces ( Approaching et al, 1994 ) . Erosion theoretical accounts are used as prognostic tools for measuring dirt loss and undertaking planning. They can besides be used for understanding eroding procedures and their impacts ( Approaching et al 1994 ) . There are three chief types of theoretical accounts, empirical or statist ical theoretical accounts, conceptual theoretical accounts and physically based theoretical accounts ( Morgan 1995, Approaching et Al 1994, Merritt et al 2003 ) . It is of import to observe nevertheless that there is no crisp difference among them. 2.8.5.1 Physically Based Models These theoretical accounts are based on work outing cardinal physical equations depicting watercourse flow and deposit and associated alimentary coevalss in a specific catchment ( Merritt et al. , 2003 ) . They are developed to foretell the spacial distribution of overflow and deposit over land surfaces during single storms in add-on to number overflow and dirt loss ( Morgan, 1995 ) . Physically based theoretical accounts are besides called procedure based theoretical accounts ( Morgan, 1995 ) as they rely on empirical equations to find eroding procedures. These theoretical accounts use a peculiar differential equation known as the continuity equation which is a statement of preservation of affair as it moves through infinite over clip. The common physically based theoretical accounts used in H2O quality surveies and eroding include: The Areal Non-Point Source Watershed Environment Response Simulation ( ANSWERS ) ( Beasley et al. , 1980 ) , Chemical Runoff and Erosion from Agricultur al Management Systems ( CREAMS ) ( Knisel, 1980 ) , Griffith University Erosion System Template ( GUEST ) ( Misra and Rose, 1996 ) , European Soil Erosion Model ( EUROSEM ) ( Morgan, 1998 ) , Productivity, Erosion and Runoff, Functions to Evaluate Conservation Techniques ( PERFECT ) ( Littleboy et al. , 1992 ) and Water Erosion Prediction Project ( WEPP ) ( Laflen et al. , 1991 ) . 2.8.5.2 Empirical Models These theoretical accounts are based chiefly on observations and are normally statistical in nature. They are based on inductive logic, and by and large are applicable merely to those conditions for which the parametric quantities have been calibrated ( Approaching et al. , 1994, Merritt et al. , 2003 ) . The chief focal point of these theoretical accounts have been in foretelling mean dirt loss although some extensions to sediment output have been developed ( Williams, 1975 as quoted by Approaching et al.,1994 ) . Empirical theoretical accounts are by and large based on the premise that the implicit in conditions remain unchanged for the continuance of the survey period. They are non event responsive and disregard the procedure of rainfall – overflow in the countries being modeled. Empirical theoretical accounts are often used in penchant to the more complex theoretical accounts and are peculiarly utile as first measure in placing beginnings of deposit and alimentary coevalss ( Merritt et al.,2003 ) . Among the normally used theoretical accounts are: The Universal Soil Loss Equation ( USLE ) ( Wischmeier and Smith, 1978 ) , Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation ( RUSLE ) ( Renard et al. , 1994 ) and the Soil Loss Estimation Model for Southern Africa ( SLEMSA ) ( Etwell, 1978 ) . 2.8.5.3 Conceptual Models These theoretical accounts are based on on spatially lumped signifiers of H2O and sediment continuity equations ( Lane et al. , 1988 in Approaching et al. , 1994 ) . They intend to include a general description of catchment procedures, without including the particular inside informations of procedure interactions which would necessitate elaborate catchment information ( Merritt et al. , 2003 ) . These theoretical accounts can supply an indicant of the qualitative and quantitative effects of land usage alterations, without necessitating big sums of spatially and temporally distributed information. The chief characteristic that distinguishes these conceptual theoretical accounts from empirical theoretical accounts is that the conceptual theoretical account, whilst they tend to be aggregated, they still reflect the hypothesis about the procedures regulating the system behavior ( Merritt et al.,2003 ) . The Agricultural Non-Point Source Model ( AGNPS ) ( Young et al. , 1989 ) , Agricultu ral Catchment Research Unit ( ACRU ) ( Schulze, 1995 ) , Hydrologic Simulation Program Fortran ( HSPF ) ( Walton and Hunter, 1996 ) , and Simuator for Water Resources in Rural Basins ( SWRRB ) ( Arnold et al. , 1990 ) are among the theoretical accounts ( Merritt et al. , 2003 ) used in eroding and H2O quality surveies.2.7 Soil Erosion in the CaribbeanSoil Erosion in the Caribbean in chiefly affected by two types of factors, climatic factors and topographic factors. It can be seen that the dirts of the islands of the West indies should be capable to a great trade of eroding by H2O. The sum of dirt eroding happening in the Caribbean has non been quantitively determined. The badness of the eroding depends on topography, rainfall, natural flora, erodibility of the dirts, land usage and dirt direction. Harmonizing to Breckner 1971, topographic effects are every bit utmost as the climatic effects. Several Caribbean islands are characterized by steep inclines with a high per centum ( 58 % ) of the land country holding inclines greater than 30 grades. Many inclines are greater than 45 grades and agriculture is practiced on these inclines ( Gumbs 1997 ) .2.7.1 TrinidadErosion surveies on a scope of dirt types in many tropical states have shown that dirt losingss can be extended ( Suarez De Castro 1951, 1952 ; Smith and Abruna 1985 ; Sheng and Michaelsen 1973 ; Lal 1976 ) . The earliest comprehensive study on dirt eroding in Trinidad was done by Hardy ( 1942 ) . He reported considerable gulling and sheet eroding in the foothills of the northern scope peculiarly in the western portion where intensive cultivation is carried out. Burning to unclutter the land for moisture season and landslides are common in some topographic points where the dirt is within six inches of parent stone. Beside s harmonizing to Hardy sheet eroding is an of import in the Caroni field. He suggested that the dirt on the sides of the extremely cambered beds of the sugar cane countries is straight exposed to the rains and is therefore merely as prone to eroding as open dirt on steep hills of the northern scope. In Las Lomas the sandy dirts are described as being really erodible. Since much of the land is a forest modesty, eroding is non a terrible job. In the cardinal scope land weirdo is a major job and the sothern inclines show many land slip cicatrixs. Chenery ( 1952 ) mentioned that Brasso clay, the most broad spread dirt of the cardinal scope is really scoured due to drawn-out cultivation. Both Hardy and Chenery commented on the terrible eroding of the marl soild and the associated ruddy dirts of the Naparima territory in southern Trinidad, with caps of open white marl being a common characteristic of the hills of the part. Alleyne and Percy ( 1966 ) measured the dirt loss from the major dirt type ( Maracas clay loam – orhoxic tropudult ) in the northern scope under Ananas comosus ( Ananas comosus ) with 50 % of the country terraced and pangola grass ( Digitaria decumbens ) . Under both types of flora the overflow was less than 10 % of rainfall and the dirt losingss were both really little ( & lt ; 0.4 and 0.05 metric tons per hectare during the moisture season ) . Lindsay and Gumbs ( 1982 ) have shown that this dirt type is merely somewhat erosible but the big sums of dirt can be lost from the bare dirt ( Gumbs and Lindsay 1982 ) . Report on losingss of N by eroding either in overflow or eroded deposits are limited. Neal ( 1944 ) considered that the bulk of nitrogen loss by eroding occurs in the organic fraction of the dirt as H2O easy loosens and floats off organic affair. Lal ( 1976 ) found there was a inclination for greater losingss of inorganic N in the erosed deposits than in the overflow H2O.2.7.2 Tobago:Information on the eroding state of affairs in Tobago are Brown et Al ( 1965 ) , Hardy ( 1942 ) and Breckner ( 1971 ) . All the cragged countries of Tobago is extremely prone to eroding with dirts formed from such extremely erosive parent stuffs as diorite and schists ruling. Volacanic tufas and breccias make up the 3rd major type of prent stone. In the South of the island eroding becomes a more serious job. Hardy has described heavy eroding in the Castara – Parlat country on the leeward side of the island. On the winward side of the island, big spots of land on the volcanic dirts are still being cleared, chiefly by firing and seting with cultivable harvests such as maize, land commissariats and tomatoes. The worst scoured country is in Mason Hall. – Les Coteaux territory. The flaxen clay loam dirts of this country formed from dioritein really irregular, steeply inclining topography look to be extremely erodible. This is due to the chief country sing provincial farming which involves intensive cultivation. It is of import to observe nevertheless that brown et al estimated that between 1956 and 1965 1500 estates of land have been treated by dirt preservation steps under the subsidies strategy. The authour saw no grounds of treated land. It was observed that dirt preservation steps were practicised. Limited dirt preservation is practiced chiefly in the signifier of intercropping and on occasion trash mulching ( Gumbs 1997 ) .2.7.3 Antigua:The low rainfall and degree topography of much of both Antigua and Barbuda has meant that non as much eroding has occurred as in some other parts of the West Indies ( Hill 1964 ; Vernon and Lang 1964 ) . However much accelerated eroding has occurred in the cragged countries of Antigua. Cotton was grown extensively and requires a long fallow period under hapless hapless direction. Monoculture of sugar cane in the yesteryear has besides added to the loss of much dirt in hilly countries. Harsh and Torrential rains occur frequently after long periods of drouths when vegetive screen is thin. This has contributed to the eroding job. In the hills of the cardinal part, Indian Creek loam and Liberta clay loam are both described as being really eroded with parent stuff being exposed in some topographic points. In the south West mountains, frys clay loam and springhill loam, small dirt is left at all on the steeper slopes.2.7.4 Barbados:Harmonizing to Veron and Carroll ( 1966 ) about 25 % of Barbados occurs occupies comparatively level coral dirts on which eroding is non considered to be terrible. They suggested that eroding control measures, possibly necessary on the dirts of highland tableland of St. toilet ‘s Valley. In the hilly Scotland District eroding is really terrible. Cumberbatch ( 1985 ) reported that it was estimated that 70 % of the country was threatened by eroding and that 11 % of it had reached a really terrible province of debasement. L andslides and gullying are common.2.7.5 Dominica:The dirts of Dominica are extremely permeable except dirts formed on pyrogenic stones, the shoal dirts and other dirts become less permeable during pedologic development. As a consequence non as much eroding occurs. Dominica is charaterised by steep inclines where 86 % of the land country has inclines greater than 20 grades and merely 2 % has slopes between 0 to 5 grades. Slopes of over 60 % with natural flora and cultivated inclines over 50 grades are reported by Lang ( 1967 ) , bespeaking that the dirt is of unusual stableness. It is of import to observe nevertheless that eroding is limited because much of the land is still under forest. On the Leeward side of the island, most of the shoal dirts and other dirts of low permeableness occur. Poor dirt and harvest direction has been the major subscriber to the dirt eroding job. The slow regeneration of dirt suitable for cropping in he dry countries ( as in St. Lucia besides ) increases he strength of dirt eroding. Harmonizing to the environment profile of Dominica prepared under the advice of the Caribbean Conservation Association in 1991, Dominica has great potency for agricultural development without damaging or remotion of the forest lands. Forestry and forestry development are of import. Timber extraction is undertaken but harmonizing to Russell ( 1974 ) it amendss merely a comparatively little country and the eroding caused is non important.2.7.6 Grenada and Carriacou:Harmonizing to Vernon et Al ( 1958 ) , although some terrible eroding can be seen in the hills where switching cultivation, atomization of land, hapless land distribution and hapless cultivation patterns exist, Grenada has suffered less from eroding and birthrate exhaustion than many of the Caribbean islands. There are two chief grounds for this ; The island ‘s agribusiness is chiefly on tree harvests, chocolate ( Theobroma chocolate tree ) and nut million ( Myristica fragrans ) , banana an nutrient harvests are often interplante with chocolate ; and major wood fires are non prevailing. The dirt parent stuff is really basal rich an the dirt has been farther enriched by add-ons of volcanic ash from eruptions in about islands in recent times. Even if some surface dirt is lost, the underlying open stuff is about as fertile and promotes raid vegetive growing. Caribbean has suffered really terrible eroding over about the whole island and in many instances merely the parent stone remains.This has been as a consequence of the erodible nature of the dirt, unsustainable cultivation methods an overgrazing. The dirts of cariacou are skeletal dirts over ash and agglomerate dirts formed from other pyrogenic stones and those formed from limestone. They are all susceptible to eroding and deep gullies.2.7.7 Monsteratt:Lang ( 1976 ) describes the whole island as enduring from terrible dirt eroding and the greater part holding lost its top dirt. Unlike the dirts of Dominica, they are by and large unstable and many dirts are extremely erodible if cultivated on inclines greater than ten grades.2.7.8 St. Vincent:Harmonizing to Watson et Al ( 1958 ) dirt and land usage study of St. Vincent, he mentioned that because of certain types of harvests grown, dirt eroding is a serious job. The three harvests which contribute to much of the eroding are cotton ( Gos sypium sp. ) , arrowroot ( Maranta arundinacea ) and land nuts ( Arachis hypogaea ) . Cultivation of these harvests disturb the dirt and go forth the dirt bare for long periods. Erosion can be seen in all but the flattest countries. It is of import to observe nevertheless that the husbandmans of St. Vincent are witting of the eroding job and dirt preservation methods are of high criterions.2.7.9 St Lucia:Soil eroding is a major job in St. Lucia. Many of the dirts inside are susceptible to heavy rains and dirt can be seen being washed off by even the smallest rills ( Stark et al 1966 ) . In countries of allophonic clay dirts, slouching is a job and gullying besides is common throughout the island. Common patterns such as clean cultivation of really steep land and of uncluttering steeply inclining forested land which would be left under its original flora have accentuated the state of affairs. Probably the most terrible affecs of eroding are on the so called â€Å" shoal dirts † which contain a bed of indurated stuff in the substrate.2.7.9.1 St. Kitts and Nevis:Information on dirt eroding on these two islands is taken from the dirt study study by Lang and Carrol ( 1967 ) Erosion in the cragged countries of the islands has much been reduced by conserving the country in wood. Where the wood has been cleared and planted to proviso harvests, some accelerated eroding is seen. The undersoil of most of the island ‘s dirts is free run outing and contour cultivation is common the worst effects of eroding are normally avoided. On the island of Nevis in contrast, much eroding can be seen. In much of the chief agribusiness countries the surface dirt has been lost wholly.2.7.9.2 Jamaica:The dirt study studies of Jamaica ( Barker, 1963 and 1970 ; Finch 1959 and 1961 ; Morgan and Baker, 1963 ; Price 1959a and 1959b ; Stark 1963, 1964a and 1964b ; Vernon, 1959 and 1960 ) indicate that dirt eroding is rampant in many parts and on many dirts of the island. One of the major factors is population force per unit area which consequences in increasing frequence and strength of land usage or the usage of land beyond its capableness. The parishes of Westmorland, Portland, Hanover, Clarendon and St. Elizabeth are particularly noted as enduring from terrible accelerated eroding. Soils where eroding is a serious job are limestone dirts, shale deriveds and the dirts formed on grano-diorite. Besides the shale dirt dirts are noted for their superficiality, hapless infiltration and permeableness, factors which contribute to serious